CLASS 12 GEOGRAPHY · NCERT · NCERT CLASS 12 THEMES III, THEME 13: GANDHI'S MOVEMENTS + INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS 1915-1947
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Gandhi's SOUTH AFRICA experience (1893-1914)?
Gandhi went to SOUTH AFRICA 1893 as lawyer for Gujarati merchant. Faced racial discrimination (famous PIETERMARITZBURG train ejection 1893). Developed SATYAGRAHA (truth-force) tactic in struggle for Indian rights — first major use 1906 against Asiatic Registration Act. Won concessions from Smuts 1914 (Indian Relief Act). Established NEWSPAPER Indian Opinion + farms (PHOENIX, TOLSTOY). Returned to INDIA Jan 1915. South Africa = LABORATORY for: (i) MASS mobilisation; (ii) NON-violent resistance; (iii) Hindu-Muslim unity; (iv) Symbolic acts (burning passes, salt march logic). emphasises this PRELUDE.
GANDHI in INDIA — first 3 movements 1917-18?
(i) CHAMPARAN 1917 (BIHAR) — peasants forced by Indian + British INDIGO planters under TINKATHIA system to grow indigo on 3/20 of holdings + sell at low price; Rajkumar Shukla brought Gandhi; Gandhi's investigation + civil disobedience to expulsion order; British INQUIRY commission ABOLISHED tinkathia. FIRST satyagraha victory in India. (ii) AHMEDABAD MILL Strike (1918) — workers vs. Ambalal Sarabhai over plague bonus; Gandhi's 3-day FAST resolved with 35% wage hike. (iii) KHEDA 1918 (GUJARAT) — peasants couldn't pay revenue after crop failure; Gandhi + Vallabhbhai Patel led NO-tax campaign; partial concession. THESE established Gandhi as NATIONAL leader by 1919.
JALLIANWALA BAGH 1919 — what + why critical?
13 APRIL 1919 (Baisakhi day) — Gen REGINALD DYER ordered troops to fire on peaceful crowd of ~10,000 in JALLIANWALA BAGH (a walled garden) in AMRITSAR. Crowd had gathered to protest ROWLATT ACT (preventive detention without trial) + arrest of leaders. Dyer's troops fired 1,650 rounds in 10 mins — official: 379 killed; Indian estimates: 1,000+; thousands wounded. Bagh's only exit was BLOCKED. RABINDRANATH TAGORE renounced KNIGHTHOOD in protest. Hunter Commission censured Dyer mildly; Brits in UK + India praised him. Gandhi launched NON-COOPERATION 1920. the standard textbook 12: Jallianwala turned moderates into REVOLUTIONARIES + ended faith in British justice.
GANDHI's philosophy — SATYAGRAHA + AHIMSA + SWARAJ?
(i) SATYAGRAHA (truth-force) — non-violent resistance to injustice through MORAL SUFFERING + civil disobedience; not "passive" — ACTIVE confrontation. (ii) AHIMSA (non-violence) — REFUSAL to harm any being in thought, word, or deed; foundation of Satyagraha. (iii) SWARAJ (self-rule) — both POLITICAL (independence from British) + INDIVIDUAL (self-mastery, control of desires). (iv) SARVODAYA (welfare of all) — economic + social well-being; CONSTRUCTIVE programme: KHADI (handspun cloth), village industries, untouchability removal, women's education, Hindu-Muslim unity, prohibition. Gandhi's political + spiritual + economic philosophy was INTEGRATED.
GANDHI in SOUTH AFRICA — innovations?
21 years (1893-1914). (i) Faced racial discrimination (PIETERMARITZBURG train ejection 1893); (ii) DEVELOPED SATYAGRAHA (truth-force) tactic 1906 against Asiatic Registration Act; (iii) Won concessions from Smuts 1914 (Indian Relief Act); (iv) NEWSPAPER Indian Opinion + farms (PHOENIX, TOLSTOY); (v) Returned to INDIA Jan 1915. South Africa = LABORATORY for: MASS mobilisation, NON-violent resistance, Hindu-Muslim unity, symbolic acts.
JALLIANWALA BAGH — IMPACT?
13 April 1919 (Baisakhi). General DYER's 90 troops fired 1,650 rounds in 10 mins on peaceful crowd in JALLIANWALA BAGH, AMRITSAR (single narrow exit). Official: 379 killed, 1,000+ wounded. RABINDRANATH TAGORE renounced KNIGHTHOOD. Hunter Commission CENSURED Dyer mildly; Brits in UK + India praised him. GANDHI launched NON-COOPERATION 1920. Jallianwala turned moderates into REVOLUTIONARIES + ended faith in British justice.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT 1920-22 — programme + scale?
LAUNCHED Sept 1920 (Calcutta Special Congress) + ratified Dec 1920 (Nagpur Congress). PROGRAMME: (i) BOYCOTT British schools, courts, councils, foreign goods, titles; (ii) ESTABLISH parallel Indian institutions (national schools — Jamia Millia, Kashi Vidyapith; Tilak Swaraj Fund Rs 1 crore raised); (iii) PROMOTE KHADI + SPINNING WHEEL; (iv) HINDU-MUSLIM unity through KHILAFAT cause (Ottoman Caliph). Massive participation: lawyers RESIGNED (C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru); students LEFT colleges; thousands ARRESTED; NEHRU father + son JAILED; foreign cloth bonfires nationwide. FIRST national-scale Gandhi-led mass movement.
CHAURI CHAURA Feb 1922 — why did Gandhi withdraw NCM?
5 FEB 1922 — at CHAURI CHAURA (UP, Gorakhpur), peasants angered by police firing turned violent — surrounded police station, set it on fire, killed 22 policemen. Gandhi was DEEPLY DISTURBED by violation of NON-VIOLENCE; called off NCM 12 Feb 1922. Many leaders (Subhash Bose, C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru) DISAGREED — believed movement at peak. Gandhi insisted means MUST match ends. Was tried + sentenced to 6 years 1922 (SHANTI MUKHERJEE Trial). the standard textbook 12: Chauri Chaura is ICONIC moment — Gandhi PRIORITISED principle over momentum. Critics + defenders debate this still.
PURNA SWARAJ + Salt SATYAGRAHA 1929-30?
DEC 1929 — LAHORE Congress under JAWAHARLAL NEHRU declared PURNA SWARAJ (complete independence) as Congress goal; on 26 JAN 1930 — INDEPENDENCE DAY observed nationally (later India's Republic Day). Gandhi launched CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE March 12 1930 — DANDI MARCH 240 miles from Sabarmati to DANDI coast (24 days, 78 satyagrahis); reached Dandi 6 APRIL — picked up salt + violated SALT LAWS. Movement spread NATIONWIDE: salt-making in coastal areas; tax non-payment in Gujarat; peasants in Bardoli; SARABRAI women; thousands ARRESTED. SALT LAW was symbolic but BRILLIANT — touched poorest Indian, exposed unfair tax.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT 1931 + Round Table Conference?
MARCH 1931 — Gandhi-Irwin (Viceroy) PACT signed: (i) Gandhi suspended CDM; (ii) Government released political prisoners; (iii) Gandhi to attend SECOND ROUND TABLE in London. Gandhi went to LONDON Sept 1931 — sole CONGRESS rep. Talks DEADLOCKED on Hindu-Muslim representation; British Govt+Muslim League+Sikhs vs. Congress on COMMUNAL AWARD. Returned Dec 1931; resumed CDM Jan 1932 — but met BRUTAL repression (1,20,000 arrested). 1932 — POONA PACT with Ambedkar over separate Dalit electorates. CDM officially withdrawn 1934 + Congress shifted to CONSTITUTIONAL politics under Govt of India Act 1935.
CHAURI CHAURA 1922 — exact details?
5 FEB 1922 — at CHAURI CHAURA (UP, Gorakhpur), peasants angered by police firing turned violent — surrounded police station, set it on fire, killed 22 policemen. Gandhi was DEEPLY DISTURBED by violation of NON-VIOLENCE; called off NCM 12 Feb 1922. Many leaders (Subhash Bose, C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru) DISAGREED. Gandhi was tried + sentenced to 6 years 1922.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT 1931 — terms?
March 1931 — Gandhi-Irwin (Viceroy) PACT: (i) Gandhi suspended CDM; (ii) Government released political prisoners; (iii) Gandhi to attend SECOND ROUND TABLE in London; (iv) Salt-making for personal use allowed in coastal areas. Gandhi went to LONDON Sept 1931 — sole CONGRESS rep. Talks DEADLOCKED on Hindu-Muslim representation; British Govt+Muslim League+Sikhs vs Congress on COMMUNAL AWARD. Returned Dec 1931; resumed CDM Jan 1932 — but met BRUTAL repression.
This topic is part of the NCERT Class 12 History syllabus, drawn from the chapter NCERT Class 12 Themes III, Theme 13: Gandhi's movements + Indian National Congress 1915-1947. Content is cross-referenced against the latest NCERT textbook editions + standard reference works.
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