UPSC CORE GEOGRAPHY · NCERT · BIPAN CHANDRA VOL I CH 1: DECLINE OF MUGHALS + 18TH-CENTURY INDIA'S POLITICAL-ECONOMIC SETTING
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Bipan Chandra's 6 causes of Mughal decline?
(i) AGRARIAN CRISIS — over-assignment of jagirs; jagirdars over-exploited peasants; ZAMINDARS revolted (Jat 1669+, Satnami 1672, Sikh 1709, Maratha 1657-1818); (ii) JAGIRDARI CRISIS — too many mansabdars chased too few good jagirs ("be-jagir"); (iii) AURANGZEB's ENDLESS DECCAN WAR (1681-1707) exhausted treasury + manpower; (iv) WEAK SUCCESSORS after 1707; 4 succession wars in 12 years; (v) RELIGIOUS POLICY — jizya (1679) alienated Hindus + Sikhs + Marathas; (vi) ARRIVAL of European trading companies disrupted Indian commercial economy.
How quickly did the Mughal empire fragment?
BAHADUR SHAH I (1707-12) → JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13) → FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-19, controlled by SAYYID BROTHERS) → MUHAMMAD SHAH "RANGILA" (1719-48). By 1722 EVERY major province was effectively independent: BENGAL (1717), AWADH (1722), HYDERABAD (1724); MARATHAS controlled most of central India; SIKHS in Punjab; AFGHANS (Abdali) in NW. The Mughal empire was a SHELL by 1739 (Nadir Shah's sack).
NADIR SHAH's sack of Delhi 1739 — significance?
NADIR SHAH (Persian Afsharid king) defeated Mughal Muhammad Shah at the BATTLE OF KARNAL (24 Feb 1739, 6-hour battle). OCCUPIED Delhi 21 March; reportedly killed 30,000+ in retaliation for an attack on his soldiers; LOOTED 70 crore rupees + the PEACOCK THRONE (with Koh-i-Noor + Timur Ruby + 100s of jewels); enslaved THOUSANDS of artisans + women. Returned to Persia April 1739 — assassinated 1747. PSYCHOLOGICAL DEATH-BLOW to Mughal prestige; the SECOND coming of Timur (1398) — but worse.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI's 7 invasions?
AHMAD SHAH DURRANI / ABDALI (1722-1773) — Afghan king; ex-general of Nadir Shah; founded the Durrani Empire after Nadir's assassination. Invaded India 7 TIMES (1748-67). MAJOR campaigns: (i) 1748 — battle of Manupur; defeated by Mughals (only Mughal victory of the era). (ii) 1756-57 — sacked Delhi + Mathura + Vrindavan; took Punjab. (iii) 1761 — THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT (14 January 1761) — defeated MARATHAS comprehensively; ~70,000 killed. After this Abdali GAVE BACK the throne to the Mughal Shah Alam II + returned to Afghanistan; never tried to rule India himself.
BIPAN CHANDRA — main reasons for Mughal decline?
(i) AURANGZEB's OVEREXTENSION + Deccan wars (1681-1707) drained treasury; (ii) JAGIR CRISIS — too many mansabdars + too few jagirs; (iii) RELIGIOUS POLICIES alienated Sikhs (Tegh Bahadur execution), Marathas, Rajputs; (iv) ECONOMIC stagnation + peasant impoverishment; (v) WEAK SUCCESSORS after 1707 — 6 puppets in 12 yrs; (vi) NADIR SHAH 1739 + AHMAD SHAH ABDALI 1748-67 raids; (vii) SUCCESSOR STATES (Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh, Marathas) emerged independent.
5 European trading companies in India + dates?
(i) PORTUGUESE — Vasco da Gama at Calicut 1498; Goa captured 1510 (Albuquerque); ESTADO DA INDIA was the FIRST European colonial empire in Asia. (ii) DUTCH (VOC, founded 1602) — established Cochin + Pulicat + Chinsurah; lost India by mid-1700s. (iii) ENGLISH (East India Company, charter 1600) — Surat 1612, Madras 1639, Bombay 1668, Calcutta 1690. (iv) DANISH (1620) — small footprint; sold posts to British 1845. (v) FRENCH (Compagnie des Indes Orientales 1664) — Pondicherry 1674, Chandernagore 1690, Mahe 1721, Karaikal 1739; bitter rival of British.
3 Carnatic Wars (1746-63) + Anglo-French rivalry?
(i) FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746-48) — extension of European War of Austrian Succession; FRENCH under DUPLEIX captured Madras (1746); returned to British by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748. (ii) SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-54) — fought through PROXY local rulers (French backed Chanda Sahib of Carnatic + Muzaffar Jung of Hyderabad; British backed Anwaruddin + Nasir Jung); CLIVE'S famous DEFENCE of ARCOT (1751) with 200 troops — turning point. French lost. Dupleix recalled 1754. (iii) THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1756-63) — extension of Seven Years' War in Europe; British under EYRE COOTE defeated French at WANDIWASH (22 Jan 1760) — DECISIVE; French Pondicherry surrendered. ENGLISH became the SOLE European naval power in the Indian Ocean.
ROBERT CLIVE's defence of Arcot (1751)?
September-November 1751. CLIVE (only ~26 years old, junior writer turned officer) led 200 British + 300 sepoys to capture ARCOT (capital of the Carnatic Nawab Chanda Sahib who was besieging the British-allied Muhammad Ali at Trichinopoly). Held Arcot for 50 DAYS against 10,000 French-Indian troops; eventually relieved. Forced Chanda Sahib to lift the Trichinopoly siege. Made Clive a HERO; PROVED that small British forces with sepoys could defeat large Indian armies. Set the TEMPLATE for British conquest of India.
NADIR SHAH — 1739 invasion?
NADIR SHAH (Persian, "Napoleon of Persia") invaded India 1738-39. Defeated MUHAMMAD SHAH at KARNAL 24 Feb 1739 (3 hours of battle). Marched to Delhi; sacked city 11 March 1739 — 2-day MASSACRE killed ~30,000 Delhiites. Carried away PEACOCK THRONE + KOH-I-NOOR diamond + 70 crore rupees worth of treasure (~3 years of Mughal revenue). Mughal Empire NEVER recovered economically. Nadir Shah assassinated 1747.
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI — 7 invasions?
AHMAD SHAH ABDALI (founder of modern Afghanistan) invaded India 7 TIMES between 1748-1767. Greatest impact: 3rd BATTLE OF PANIPAT 14 Jan 1761 — DEFEATED MARATHAS catastrophically (~50,000 Marathas killed; SADASHIVRAO BHAU + VISHWASRAO killed). Maratha NORTHERN expansion ended; ENABLED British rise. Abdali looted Delhi multiple times. Founded ABDALI dynasty in Afghanistan.
AWADH Nawabi — origin + decline?
SADAT KHAN BURHAN-UL-MULK (Persian noble) — appointed Mughal subadar of Awadh in 1722; gradually became INDEPENDENT in fact; founded the dynasty of Nawabs of Awadh (Persian Shia origin). Capital initially FAIZABAD; ASAF-UD-DAULA moved it to LUCKNOW 1775. After the BUXAR DEFEAT (1764), accepted SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE 1801 (under Wellesley); annexed by DALHOUSIE 1856 (charge of "misgovernance" — major cause of 1857). Wajid Ali Shah (last Nawab) exiled to Calcutta 1856-87.
BENGAL Nawabi — origin + collapse?
MURSHID QULI KHAN (originally Iranian Shia merchant; converted to Sunni; appointed Mughal subadar of Bengal 1717); shifted capital from Dhaka to MURSHIDABAD; INDEPENDENT in practice; reorganised land revenue; transferred large amounts of revenue to himself rather than the Mughal court. Sequence after him: Murshid Quli (d. 1727) → Shuja-ud-Din → ALIVARDI KHAN (1740-56, usurped his way in) → SIRAJUDDAULAH (lost Plassey 1757) → MIR JAFAR (puppet) → MIR QASIM (lost Buxar 1764) → effective British control thereafter.
This topic is part of the NCERT UPSC Core History syllabus, drawn from the chapter Bipan Chandra Vol I Ch 1: Decline of Mughals + 18th-century India's political-economic setting. Content is cross-referenced against the latest NCERT textbook editions + standard reference works.
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