UPSC CORE GEOGRAPHY · NCERT · BIPAN CHANDRA CH 13-15: FROM CDM TO WWII — SALT MARCH + COMMUNALISM RISE + 1937 ELECTIONS
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What was the SWARAJ PARTY?
Founded JANUARY 1923 at ALLAHABAD by MOTILAL NEHRU + CHITTARANJAN DAS — after Gandhi's call-off of NCM (1922) had divided Congress between PRO-CHANGE (those wanting to enter legislatures + obstruct from within) + NO-CHANGE (Gandhi's line — focus on constructive programme). Swaraj Party = the PRO-CHANGE faction. Goal: ENTER colonial legislatures + OBSTRUCT British work from inside.
Swaraj Party's 1923 election performance?
NOVEMBER 1923 elections to Imperial + Provincial Legislative Councils. SWARAJ PARTY: WON 42 of 145 elected seats in Central Legislative Assembly + majority in Central Provinces + key positions in Bengal + Bombay legislatures. ENTERED with strategy of OBSTRUCTION: voted against budgets, delayed bills, demanded resignation of Indians from civil service. INSIDE the system but disrupting it.
What did Swarajists achieve?
NOTABLY DEFEATED PUBLIC SAFETY ACT (1928) + several budget proposals. (i) Forced government to APPOINT Indian + Muslim members to Central Public Service Commission; (ii) Won concessions in Bengal Tenancy Acts; (iii) Made nationalist EYES + EARS in colonial legislatures. BUT: weakened by death of CR DAS 1925 (huge loss); MOTILAL NEHRU's gradual exhaustion; many Swarajists drifted back to CONGRESS or to communal politics. By 1928-29 Swaraj Party was over.
NEHRU REPORT (1928)?
After SIMON COMMISSION boycott (1927-28), the British challenged Indians to "produce a constitution". MOTILAL NEHRU led a committee (Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Madhav Shrihari Aney, M.R. Jayakar, G.R. Pradhan) — submitted NEHRU REPORT August 1928. Key proposals: (i) DOMINION STATUS for India (NOT full independence); (ii) UNITARY government with provincial autonomy; (iii) JOINT electorates with reserved seats for Muslims (NO separate electorates); (iv) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS guaranteed. JINNAH proposed his "FOURTEEN POINTS" 1929 demanding stronger Muslim safeguards — REJECTED by Congress. Nehru Report became the BASIS for Indian constitutional thought.
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE 1930 — main events?
(i) DANDI SALT MARCH (12 Mar - 6 Apr 1930) — Gandhi + 78 satyagrahis walked 240 miles; broke salt law; (ii) NATIONWIDE salt-making at coasts; tax non-payment; bonfires of foreign cloth; (iii) DHARASANA SALT WORKS RAID May 1930 — Sarojini Naidu + 2,500 satyagrahis beaten by police (Webb Miller's reports shocked world); (iv) ~80,000 ARRESTED including Gandhi May 1930, Nehru, Patel; (v) Lord IRWIN-Gandhi PACT March 1931 SUSPENDED CDM; Gandhi attended 2nd Round Table.
POONA PACT 1932 — what + impact?
POONA PACT 24 SEP 1932 — agreement between GANDHI + AMBEDKAR. CONTEXT: Ramsay MacDonald (UK PM) issued COMMUNAL AWARD (Aug 1932) — granted SEPARATE ELECTORATES to Dalits ("Depressed Classes"). GANDHI launched FAST UNTO DEATH at Yerwada Jail 20 Sept 1932 against this. Ambedkar reluctantly conceded — replaced separate electorates with RESERVED SEATS for Dalits in joint electorates (148 reserved seats). Foundation of modern Indian RESERVATION system. AMBEDKAR later expressed regret — felt Gandhi's fast was COERCIVE.
What did the LAHORE CONGRESS (1929) declare?
31 DECEMBER 1929 — under Jawaharlal NEHRU's presidency (his FIRST), the INC declared PURNA SWARAJ (complete independence) as its goal. Tricolour FLAG hoisted on the banks of the RAVI river at MIDNIGHT on 31 Dec 1929. Demanded full INDEPENDENCE — NOT Dominion Status (which the Simon Commission + the British had vaguely offered). REVOLUTION in Congress thinking — first time INDEPENDENCE was officially the goal.
26 JANUARY 1930 — first Independence Day?
CONGRESS asked all Indians to OBSERVE 26 JANUARY 1930 as INDEPENDENCE DAY (Purna Swaraj Day). Across India — meetings + processions + hoisting of national flag + public reading of the Independence Pledge: "It is the inalienable right of the Indian people to have freedom + to enjoy the fruits of their toil." LATER chosen as the date for REPUBLIC DAY (1950) — to honour this commitment. Started the tradition of public political celebration that culminated in 15 August 1947.
SIMON COMMISSION boycott (1927-28)?
1927 — British government appointed a 7-member commission under SIR JOHN SIMON to recommend constitutional reforms — but ALL members were British (NO Indian member). Indians UNIVERSALLY boycotted: "SIMON GO BACK". Black-flag demonstrations across India 1928. AT LAHORE on 30 OCTOBER 1928 — LALA LAJPAT RAI led a peaceful protest; British police LATHI-CHARGED; Lala received severe blows on chest; DIED on 17 NOVEMBER 1928 — major nationalist martyr. His death directly inspired BHAGAT SINGH + RAJGURU's assassination of Police Chief SAUNDERS (mistakenly identified) on 17 December 1928.
Why was LAHORE 1929 a turning point?
(i) FIRST time INC formally adopted INDEPENDENCE (vs Dominion Status); (ii) JAWAHARLAL NEHRU (then 40) became Congress President — symbolised generational change; (iii) Set the YOUTHFUL + radical tone for the next phase; (iv) PROVIDED ideological foundation for SALT MARCH + Civil Disobedience Movement (1930+); (v) MARGINALISED the older Moderate elements (now a minority); (vi) UNEQUIVOCAL break with the British constitutional framework — from now on Congress demanded ALL or nothing.
COMMUNALISM — Bipan Chandra's 5 stages?
BIPAN CHANDRA traced COMMUNALISM in 5 stages: (i) LATE 19TH-c. — emerged among Hindu + Muslim middle classes around economic + job competition; (ii) 1909-1916 — separate electorates institutionalised (Morley-Minto); (iii) 1920s — KHILAFAT-NCM brief unity then split; (iv) 1930s — Hindu MAHASABHA + Muslim LEAGUE grew; (v) 1937-1947 — TRANSFORMED into MASS communalism; League won Muslim seats; PARTITION inevitable. Bipan: COMMUNALISM was MODERN constructed identity, not ancient — colonial census + politics shaped it.
WHY did Gandhi choose SALT for the symbolic act?
BRILLIANT choice for several reasons: (i) Salt is consumed by RICH + POOR + Hindu + Muslim alike — UNIVERSAL article of human consumption; (ii) The SALT TAX was one of the most universal + hated of British monopolies; (iii) Symbolised BRITISH ECONOMIC violence vs INDIAN ECONOMIC sovereignty; (iv) Gandhi: "Next to AIR + WATER, salt is perhaps the GREATEST necessity of life"; (v) Forced the British into a NO-WIN response (any reaction to a salt protest was either weak or vicious — both bad for British image).
This topic is part of the NCERT UPSC Core History syllabus, drawn from the chapter Bipan Chandra Ch 13-15: From CDM to WWII — Salt March + Communalism rise + 1937 elections. Content is cross-referenced against the latest NCERT textbook editions + standard reference works.
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